Instructional Design | Definitions and Principles

Instructional Design | Definitions and Principles Section 1 – My Definition of Instructional Design According to the Internet Wikipedia, â€Å"Instructional Design, also called Instructional Systems Design is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences.† The course of action to be undertaken is made up in a broad sense of deciding the state in which the learner is in as we see it, stating the end purpose of the teaching, and cause the existence of some light at the end of the tunnel so as to make the transition smooth. Andragogical and pedagogical theories of learning inform the instructional design process which may transpire in three settings; teacher-led, community-based and student-only. Instructional design may be measured scientifically, observable directly or hidden completely and assumed. As much as there may be so many models of Instruction design, most of them are based on the ADDIE model in which the different phases are analyzed; design phase, development phase, implementation phase and evaluation phase. Training is everything. The peach was once a biter almond; cauliflower is nothing but cabbage with a college education (Mayer et al, 1996). In addition, Nadler (1984) postulates that training is defined as learning that is provided in order to improve performance on the present job. â€Å"Instructional Design is the systematic process of translating general principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials and learning† (Alessi Trollip, 1991). Most authors have looked at Instructional Design as a Discipline, a Science, and a Process and also as a Reality. â€Å"Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities† (Gentry, 1994). Instruction Design can also be explained as a Discipline. â€Å"Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies† (Anglin, 1991). It can also be explained as reality. â€Å"Instructional Design can start at any point in the design process. Often a glimmer of an idea is developed to give the core of an instruction situation. By the time the entire process is done the designer looks back and her or him checks to see that all parts of the â€Å"science† have been taken into account. Then the entire process is written up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion† (Venezky, R. Osin, L., 1991). Instructional design is the systematic development of instruction by using learning and instructional research and theories, as well as established best practices, to ensure the quality of classroom/course materials (Learner, 1986). The entire process of analysis of what a group of learners needs, objective identification and development of learning objects constitutes instructional design. Instructional design cannot come to a standstill at some point then pick up again. It is an ongoing process. When instruction comes to a completion, there is evaluation and after this the instruction design starts all over again. From the many authors, I can say instruction design is a process in which instruction is followed up to its completion and also the means and ways the same could be achieved. In education, instruction is part and parcel of the system. It is therefore important that means to follow instructions by students is looked into. Research and observations has it that most students do not fail because there is anything wrong with them but they fail because everything is right with them but cannot follow instructions! Section2 – The principles of Instructional Design Before looking at the key principles of Instructional design, we need to list the most important of the principles and elements of the instruction design. They include; objectives, evaluation, the learner and methods. We are going to look at the most important elements of the four principles of instruction design and see how they fit in the instruction design models that exist. Under the elements of the instruction, for one to develop a good instruction design then we need to identify the people the instruction is being developed for. This gives us a starting point. It becomes clear immediately when we have the target audience. In this way, we can profile the targeted audience and out of the profiling, we may get a rough idea of how to design the instruction. It is also important to come up with a list of things that the people for whom the instruction is being developed for should be able to accomplish after going through the instruction. This also adds some meat to the skeleton of the design of the instruction we have from the profiling we did above after identifying the people the instruction is being designed for. This is like starting from the end in order to design the instruction. Once we have an idea of what a learner should have achieved by the end of the instruction then we can come up with the best ways in which to achieve the same for the learner. Some of the things we need to think about are the teaching methods or learning methods that could be employed so as to have the objectives achieved in the best way possible (Mayer, 2001). Activities to be included in the design and resources to be used are also very important factors that we should also look into. The way to look at them is to have an established plan of how to use the resources and the activities in order to achieve the objectives of the instruction design. Another element that needs to be looked at is a way of knowing whether the learner has been able to do the things the learner should be able to do once the instruction is complete. This is some kind of the examination of the design of the instruction. One wise man once said that an unexamined life is a wasted life. Examination in whatever we do is very crucial and so it is also very important in the design of an instruction (Newby et al., 1996). It is the examination that reveals whether something is working or not. It is also good for us to put measures in place so as to determine whether the design of the instruction has made the learner learn something. Evaluation of the learning characteristics, objectives of the instruction and the methods of instruction needs to happen before taking on the actual instruction design. Learner characteristics are one of the factors to put into consideration before designing an instruction. It is very important to run a background check on the level of exposure the learner has on the topic, the grades of the learner and also how the learner has been performing academically in the past not necessary in the instruction topic but in general. The social characteristics o rather personal characteristics have to be looked at. The learners work experience, age, the relation of the content of the instruction to the leaners life and the attitude as well. It is also good to put non-conventional learners into consideration. These may include the learners who have disabilities, learners from different cultures and also primary language learners. The style of the learner is also put into consideration. This means looking at the conditions the learner has to be in when learning. Lastly, we all know that when one is motivated, the motivation quickly serves as an ingredient for success (Sweller, 1988). The motivation of a leaner is also a point to look at. Some of the pointers are the students grade, a persons credit, the self improvement of a person, the salary one earns and also the advancement of ones status. Section 3- Models of Instructional Design ADDIE model The ADDIE model is the most common of all models. The acronym ADDIE stands for five words which make up the five phases of the ADDIE model. The â€Å"A† stands for analyze. The analysis is of things like the characteristics of the learner, the tasks that the learner should learn. The â€Å"D† stands for design where the learning objectives are developed and also an approach that is instructional in nature is chosen in this phase. The second â€Å"D† stands for develop where the training or the instructional materials are brought to existence. The â€Å"I† stands for a big word and the word is the â€Å"I† stands for is implement. Implementation in a nutshell involves the distribution of the materials containing the instructions. Lastly, the â€Å"E† stands for evaluate. In the evaluation phase, checking of how the materials distributed in the implementation phase affected the learner takes place (Saettler, 1990). It is in this phase that we a re able to know whether the goals for designing the instruction were achieved. Most models of instruction design have been modified from the ADDIE model. Rapid Prototyping Rapid prototyping is a model that was adopted from the ADDIE model. It is considered a simpler version of the ADDIE model b y many instruction designers. The heart of Instruction design is the analysis phase. This phase comes first. It is the doorway to the other four phases of instruction design (Seels Glasgow, 1990). It is after the analysis stage that we are in a position to choose the instruction design model that is most suited for the design of the instruction. This is because it is only after understanding exactly what we are dealing with is one able to pick the right bus to take him or her to the right destination. Analysis should be done thoroughly. Most instruction designers do not do a thorough job when it comes to analysis. The result of this is pretty much obvious. This is synonymous to expecting a very strong house to be sustained by a very weak foundation (Smith Ragan, 1993). The analysis is the foundation of the house called instructional design. It is therefore encouraged that at the analysis stage, a lot of time and keenness should be put into the analysis so as to gather as much information as possible. The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model In the book entitled The Systematic Design of Instruction, which was published in 1978, Walter Dick and Lou Carey came up with The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model. In this model, the instruction is not viewed as a breakdown of parts isolated but as a system. Its main focus is on the interrelationship between content, instruction, context and learning. â€Å"Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about desired student learning outcomes† (Clark et al, 2006). The components to this model include instructional goal identification, instructional analysis conduction, learners and contexts analyzing, writing of performance objectives, developing of assessment instruments, developing of instructional strategy, developing and selecting of instructional materials, designing and conducting formative evaluation of instruction, revi sion of instruction and lastly, designing and conducting of summative evaluation. In the Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model, the execution of components is done in an iterative, parallel manner and not in a linear manner as in the Rapid prototyping. Apart from the above mentioned models, there exists the Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS), the Smith/Ragan Model and the Morrison/Ross/Kemp Model. Section 4- Relationships Between the Principles and the Models In this section we are going to look at the way the models have applied the key principles of instruction design. As we had seen in section two, the key principles of instruction design include; objective, evaluation, the learner and methods. Our goal in this section is to see how the models of instruction design have taken the principles of instruction design and blended than in the models of instruction design. We had also seen that the ADDIE model was broken down into five phases and these were analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation phase. At the analysis, all the blind spots to the problem are removed and this is where the goals and objectives are established. It is at this stage that the identification of the skills the learner needs is identified and the learning environment determined. The analysis stage in the ADDIE model goes hand in hand with the principle of objectivity. This shows that the ADDIE instruction model has used one of the principles of objectivity as per the analysis above. At the design level, the objectives determines in the analysis level are learnt. At the design phase, the instruments to be used to asses are determined, the content of the exercises to be done are also determined. Planning of the lessons as well as the selection of media is done here. This is consistent with the principle of methods. Under the methods principle, all the items looked at are more or less similar to the ones put into consideration under the design phase in the ADDIE model. Under the evaluation phase in the ADDIE model, there exist two sides to the coin; summative and formative. Formative has been there in each and every phase in the ADDIE model. However, Summative evaluation is specific to an identified area of problem from the learners. Under the lists of principles used in the design of an instruction, there is the principle of evaluation. This goes to show that the ADDIE is consistent with the key principles of Instructional design. If we were to look at Rapid prototyping, we can say that it is also consistent with the principles of instructional design. We can say this because it is a simpler version of the ADDIE model meaning it is very similar to the ADDIE model and since the ADDIE is compliant with the principles of Instructional design, Rapid prototyping also is consistent with the key principles of instructional design. So far, we have looked at ADDIE model and also Rapid prototyping in relation to the key principles of instruction design. The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model is seen to have quite a number of components of which we are going to look at each and every component to see of it is consistent with the key principles of instruction design or not (Paas et al., 2004). This is the model that looks at instruction as a system and not a sum of isolated parts. The identification of a goal is consistent with the objectives principle. The conducting of the analysis of the instruction is rather on its own there. There seems to be no principle in tandem with the analysis of the instruction. The principle of objectivity is in line with the analysis of learners and contexts. Writing of performance objectives can be put under the objective principle. The developing of the instruments to be used in the assessment can fit quite well under the methods principle (Clark Mayer, 2002 Cooper Sweller, 1987). The development of the instructional strategy to be used when distributing the instructions can be out under methods. The evaluation of the instruction, revision of the instruction and the summative evaluation will all fall under the evaluation principle. We can safely say therefore that all the components of the Dick and Carey Systems Approach model all follow the principles of the key principles of the design of instruction. Most models adhere to the simple key principles of instruction design. Section 5-My Lesson Plan Subject Matter and Grade Level The subject matter I choose for my lesson plan is geometry for the 6th graders. The reason behind this choice is firstly because when I was in the 6th grade, geometry was not a smooth ride but when I moved to higher grades, I felt so stupid for not being able to understand the simple geometry the teacher always taught. I would tail the class in geometry and this was not a good feeling as it interfered with my ability to grasp other subjects confidently. I can easily identify with kids whom their teachers would clearly, loudly and publically say that they have given up on them. This is because they never get above a certain grade in some subjects. This is what my teacher used to say and I would feel so inadequate. I have narrowed down to geometry because most kids at this stage feel that geometry or anything mathematical such as college algebra is hard and is beyond their capabilities (Chandler Sweller, 1991). The truth is with the principles and models of instructional design, there is nothing that cannot be learnt! The lesson I want to design is the simple formula on how to get the circumference of a circle. This was also an area I used to be confused at. Firstly, the confusion came when choosing the figure to put as diameter and the figure to put as radius. There may be students who have no problem with this but my target is the students who have time and time again gotten this geometric question wrong. The Model The model I choose to work it is the Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model. I chose this model because I want to have a system approach to the instruction and not as a sum of little instruction bits and pieces. The goal of the instruction is to prompt the learner to give the circumference of a circle whether operating from the radius or the diameter. The instruction can either be wordy or delivered using the mathematical language. The Lesson The sixth graders analyzed cannot tell the difference between the radius and the diameter and this may be the reason as to why the question is failed so many times. The performance objectives are to see a bigger percentage of the sixth graders getting questions related to the circumference of a circle correct. In school, every single mark is important just the same way as in life, every small thing done to enhance your life counts. The assessment instrument to be used is a geometry test. The strategy in getting the objectives met is to make the learning process as interesting as possible. For example, instead of drawing boring shapes using chalk on the board, we use colorful shapes and abstract shapes so as to make learning less formal for the students to relate with the interesting shapes (Kemp et al., 1996). These will be the interesting instructing materials. The formative way of checking if the instruction did work is by looking at the marks to the geometry test. If the grades ar e higher than what they were then the instruction design process was a success. Relationships The model is consistent with my theory of learning because of the components. B following the components of the Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model, I already could feel how easy the learning process has been broken down. This is exactly what I believe learning is all about. It is about taking the â€Å"complex† stuff and simplifying it further into step by step basic components which can easily be digested by the learners whom you have already profiled. The model also allows for evaluation (Mayer, 1997). Whenever there is learning, the learnt information has to be examined for the instructor to know whether their way of instruction design helps or not. References Alessi, S., Trollip, S. (1991). Computer-based instruction. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.. Anglin, G. (Ed.). (1991). Instructional technology: Past, present and future. Englewood, Colorado: Libraries Unlimited. Chandler, P. Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction.† Cognition and Instruction 8 (4): 293–332. Cooper, G., Sweller, J. (1987). Effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer.† Journal of Educational Psychology 79 (4): 347–362. Clark, R.C., Mayer, R.E. (2002). e-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Clark, R. C., Nguyen, F., and Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Gentry, C. (1994). Introduction to instructional development. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co. Kemp, J., Morrison, G., Ross, S. (1996). Designing effective instruction. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Learner, R. (1986). Concepts and Theories of Human Development (2nd ed.). New York: Random House). Mayer, R.E. (1997). Multimedia Learning: Are We Asking the Right Questions?† EducationalPsychologist 32 (41): 1–19. Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mayer, R.E., Bovet, W. Bryman, A. Mars, R. Tapangco, L. (1996).When Less Is More:Meaningful Learning From Visual and Verbal Summaries of Science Textbook Lessons. Journal of Educational Psychology. 88 (1): 64–73. Mayer, R.E., Steinhoff, K., Bower, G. and Mars, R. (1995). A generative theory of textbook design: Using annotated illustrations to foster meaningful learning of science text.† Educational Technology Research and Development. 43 (1): 31–41. Nadler, Leonard (1984). The Handbook of Human Resource Development. New York: John Wiley Sons. Newby, T., Stepich, D., Lehman, J., Russell, J. (1996). Instructional technology for teaching and learning. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.. Paas, F., Renkl, A. Sweller, J. (2004). Cognitive Load Theory: Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information Structures and Cognitive Architecture. Instructional Science 32: 1–8. Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science 12 (1): 257–285. Sweller, J., Cooper, G. A. (1985). The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra. Cognition and Instruction 2 (1): 59–89. Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educational technology. Stolovitch, H.D, Keeps, E. (1999). Handbook of human performance technology. Seels, B. Glasgow, Z. (1990). Exercises in instructional design. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company. Seels, B. Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company. Smith, P. Ragan, T. (1993). Instructional design. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Inc. Venezky, R. Osin, L. (1991). The intelligent design of computer-assisted instruction. New York: Longman. Furagin: Forced Degradation Studies Furagin: Forced Degradation Studies

Balance Based Literacy: Is it the Best Solution?

Literacy has become an important consideration in the field of education. To address literacy problems, educators (Strickland, n. d. ; Frey et al. , 2004) use the Balance Based Literacy Program, which specifically stresses the use of varied approaches to teaching literacy. According to California Department of Education (as cited in Frey et al. , 2004), the term balanced literacy originated in California in 1996. This was made into a curriculum in response to low reading scores of students on a national examination. It promotes the concept that reading and writing must go hand in hand to promote literacy.In contrast to using a specific approach to teaching literacy such as Phonics Approach or Whole Language Approach, Balance Based Literacy combines these approaches and more in order to ensure meeting the goal of literacy. Believing that every student has the capability to learn how to read and write, Balance Based Literacy allows students to achieve a certain literacy level through a combination of approaches relevant to their ability. The literacy model established with balance allows students to plan their own personal progress, and attempt new techniques in learning, with the support of teachers and resources.Based on Frey et al. (2004), many authors believe that combining a balance of teacher-directed instruction and student-centered activities is the most effective way of teaching literacy. In addition, Asselin, and Pearson (as cited in Frey) believe that Balance Based Literacy must include elements of community, authenticity, integration, optimism, modeling, and student control and connectedness. Activities incorporated in Balance Based Literacy include reading and writing aloud, shared reading and writing, guided reading and writing, and independent reading and writing. According to Mrs.Stewart’s Kindergarten Web site, one model of Balance Based Literacy being employed nowadays is the Literacy Collaborative Model. This comprehensive model is desig ned to provide a school-wide approach to improve reading and writing. This model includes a wide range of individual, small-group, and large-group reading and writing activities (Literacy Collaborative Web site). One component of Balance Based Literacy is Reading and Writing Aloud. In Reading Aloud, students learn the language through acquisition. It supports the idea that language is acquired, thus students are asked to read aloud a text to other students.By doing such, the read language registers in the mind of the students, making them learn the language. However, beyond the purpose of learning, the goals of Reading Aloud are to promote enjoyment and emphasize the uses of print (Mrs. Stewart’s Web site). It exposes the students to the uses of printed materials, and develops discussion skills by motivating them to ask questions during the activity. During Reading aloud, students do not need to view the read text. The focus is not on the content of the text, but what the stu dent reads or explains about the text.The selection for such activities may be fiction or nonfiction, or it can be a narrative, or a picture book Another component of Balance Based Literacy is Shared Reading. During Shared Reading, students reformulate ideas from the context. Either the teacher or a proficient student reader reads to the class, while the rest of the students are invited to join in the reading. One important component of shared reading is an enlarged text which is readable by all children. The text used may contain songs, poems, charts, or lists created by the teacher or developed with the class during shared writing activities.During the reading, the teacher or student reader points to or glides a locator on the reading material to guide the students in reading. This is to draw students’ attention to the print in order to promote familiarity with words in the text. Shared reading activities involve multiple readings of books over several days. During the init ial reading, the teacher emphasizes reading for enjoyment while subsequent readings are done to increase participation, and teach vocabulary, ideas, author’s style, and intonation patterns.Through repeated readings of a particular text, children become familiar with word forms and build up recognition of words and phrases used in the text (Bridge, Winograd, & Haley; Pikulski & Kellner, as cited in Frey et al. , 2004). The third reading component of Balance Based Literacy is Guided Reading. In this kind of activity, students are given more chances to express their ideas and feelings through inquiry. As such, it requires more student participation. In most cases, students are grouped together according to their level, and asked to read a text appropriate to their reading ability.In this case, the teacher needs to carefully identify each student’s level to ensure proper assessment. The fourth reading component is Independent Reading. This activity allows the student to ch oose from a wide variety of texts. It aims to make students become confident, motivated and enthusiastic about their ability to read. Considered as an advanced approach to reading, this activity makes use of skills learned during the Reading Aloud, Shared Reading, and Guided Reading activities. The writing components of Balance Based Literacy also ensure variety in the application of approaches and resources.One component is the Shared Writing activity. In this activity, the teacher and the students together decide to write a text in which the teacher acts as the scribe. The activity requires discussion of what they are writing about, and modeling of the teacher on the board how the text should be written. The students are asked to verbally interact with the teacher before, during, and after the activity to help make connections. The second writing component is the Interactive Writing activity. In this activity, either the teacher and the class, or students in groups collaborate to write a material.The students articulate the words or sounds that they are about to write, and discuss with the teacher or group mates what they are writing about. The third component is the Guided Writing or Writing Workshop. This intends to allow students to spend time daily to write about things that interest them. Students are guided to experiment with a variety of genres. The ultimate goal is for students to develop a style of their own, and apply previous learning. In addition to the writing activity itself, the teacher offers a whole class session, small group lesson, or a conference where students can learn and share their written output.The fourth component is the Independent Writing. This activity allows students to write independently by choosing their own topic and genre. By letting them write freely, students develop the natural habit of writing, thereby making them improve along the process. In this kind of activity, teacher evaluation is set aside in order to promote creativity. The components of Balance Based Literacy are directed toward a common goal: to ensure effective strategy in teaching literacy. They support basic literacy theories introduced in the past such as the constructivist, interactive, and experiential theories.Encompassing these theories, Balance Based Literacy may be viewed as a holistic approach to literacy instruction. Taking from the behaviorist theory of B. F. Skinner, the Constructivism theory believes that all knowledge is constructed through a process of reflective abstraction (Huitt, 2003). In the constructivist classroom, the learner is presented with opportunities to construct new knowledge in addition to prior knowledge and experience. In particular, Reading Aloud and Shared Writing support this theory. As students read and write aloud, they learn new sounds and vocabulary, and benefit from the sharing done by their classmates.Interactive Reading and Writing anchor on the Interactive theory. This theory believes tha t learning is best attained through interaction with others. As discussed above, during Interactive Reading and Writing, students are given the opportunity to listen to other’s ideas. All the components mentioned above support the experiential theory. This theory purports that learning will best occur through individual experience. By asking students to read and write aloud, express ideas in interactive activities, and read and write on their own, teachers promote experiential learning as the very basis of their instruction.Although many educators believe in the effectiveness of Balance Based Literacy Instruction, some authors see disadvantages in its application. For instance, Wren (n. d. ) suggests that the needs of the learners must be the first consideration when designing an appropriate program of instruction. He claims that instruction should be patterned to the needs of the learners and not specific of one approach or a balance of many approaches. Another issue regardi ng application of Balance Based Literacy is the specific focus it gives on reading and writing.This tends to neglect other skills such as speaking and listening, which are also important aspects of literacy. To mitigate problems arising from this neglect, the teacher should incorporate speaking and listening resources as tools for reading and writing instruction. For example, instead of focusing on printed materials, guided writing could use listening resources as motivation activities. Furthermore, technological resources should likewise be used to promote a holistic approach. Conclusion Balance Based Literacy has been considered by many as an ideal program to teach literacy.Given its whole rounded and comprehensive approach to reading and writing, it purports not just base learning but mastery of skills in the target areas. In addition, the activities it introduces provide a way to monitor the progress of students, and allow them to experience learning in various ways. Studies val idating the effectiveness of Balance Based Literacy have found its applicability to young learners. However, not much has been said about its applicability to adult learners who are more in need of a balanced instruction.In this regard, it is highly recommended to conduct research on the applicability of the said program of instruction among adult learners. References Balance overview. (n. d. ) Retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://projectcentral. ucf. edu/Past%20Initiatives/BALANCE/index. html Dorothy S. Strickland (n. d. ) Balanced Literacy: Teaching the Skills and thrills of reading. http://teacher. scholastic. com/professional/teachstrat/balanced. htm Frey, Bruce B. , Steve W. Lee, Nona Tollefson &Lisa Pass. (2004). Balanced literacy in an urban school district. Retrieved 17 March 2008, from http://people. ku. edu/~bfrey/balancedliteracy.pdf Kolb, David A. , Richard E. Boyatzis & Charalampos Mainemelis. Experiential learning theory: Previous research and new directions. Retrieve d March 20, 2008, from http://www. learningfromexperience. com/images/uploads/experiential-learning-theory. pdf Literacy collaborative: Our purpose. (n. d. ) Retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://www. literacycollaborative. org/about/characteristics/ Martha Manson French, M. (1999). Planning for literacy instruction: Guidelines for planning and instruction for literacy. Retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://clercdev. gallaudet. edu/cc/Products/Sharing-Ideas/planning/guidelines.html Root, Cathy (n. d. ) Balanced : Reading and writing in the first and second grade classroom an internet-based treasure hunt on balanced literacy. Retrieved March 18, 2008, from http://www. swlauriersb. qc. ca/english/edservices/pedresources/balancedlit/balancedliteracy. htm Thelen, Jeff. (n. d. ). A balanced literacy program for the upper elementary grades. Retrieved March 19, 2008, from http://curriculum. edenpr. org/~jthelen/languagearts/a_balanced_literacy_program. htm Wren, Sebastian. (n. d. ) What do es a balanced literacy approach mean? Retrieved from http://www. sedl. org/reading/topics/balanced. html

Move And Position Individuals In Accordance With Their Plan Of Care

When i work with a client with different conditions, this effects how i support them to move and change positions. A client with dementia who is confused might not understand what we are saying and when we are supporting her to move, so we have to show the client by our actions and take time to do this. Clients with arthritis have to be supported to move gently as they may be in a lot of pain and positioning or moving may be uncomfortable. An individual that has had a stroke might have one arm or leg stronger than the other, so this needs to be taken into account when weight bearing or moving so as to avoid putting pressure on the weak side and resulting in the client falling.Legislation that is relevant includes the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations; this iintroduced the requirement for risk assessments, risks when moving and handling clients must be assessed, acted on and reviewed; also all staff must be trained in moving and handling. The Manual handling Operatio ns Regulations for employers states that they must carry out risk assessments for all moves and reduce the risk of injuries from happening and avoid dangerous moving and handling; the employees' responsibilities include using all equipment as trained to do so, follow all health and safety working practices and putting themselves or other staff at risk, reporting any hazards or risks to their employer.Agreed ways of working mean that employers must have work place policies and procedures for moving and handling; these must be explained to staff and staff provided with training and supervision. it is also important that all employees, read these procedures and if they do not understand they attend training.Before moving or positioning a client, i have to take responsibility for the health and safety of the service user, others and myself and while doing this adhere to the organisational policies in place and meet all health and safety obligations. I only move and positions clients whe re I have had training to do so. I do this by ensuring that I am wearing appropriate clothing and foot wear when I move a client or am supporting them to change position to avoid any risk of being harmed; for example when using a hoist IÂ  must not wear open shoes or sandals.I also make sure that I do a manual risk assessment before performing any move or re-position. I do not use any equipment that I have not been trained to use and I check that there is enough space around me to carry out the move. All equipment needs to be checked that it is working correctly, if a hoist that it is charged, and all equipment must be clean and safe to use. I look out for any obstacles, like loose rugs, clothes and move them to one side. It is important the space around me is clean and comfortable. All moving and handling must not be rushed. Infection control is also important, washing of hands before and after and wearing of PPE according to my workplace policy.I also check with the client their needs and preferences and check this against their plan. I then ask the service user for their agreement before the move and make sure I am using the correct equipment, that the sling and hoist are clean and safe to use and the correct ones for the client; these must then be stored away safely to avoid any accidents or them being used for someone else. Also to take into account is whether the client will keep their arms in the sling or whether they may decide not to or may become anxious when being moved.

Racism And Discrimination The United States - 1260 Words

We are in a generation where individuals have experienced and remember when racism and discrimination was an immense element that held people back in society. Race has always been a social construction in the United States, created in the minds of Americans and manifested through interactions but yet remains as a false determination of a human being. When we think back to earlier times many immigrants came over because of the â€Å"American Dream,† an idea that every citizen can have equal opportunities to achieve and live successful lives. The United States was the lighthouse of opportunities for a pursuit of freedoms, financial security, education, and jobs. Even to this day we are told we can be anything our heart desires with an appropriate education and a strong work ethic to match it. Yet there is a different outlook for African Americans depicted by the saying: â€Å"As a black person in white America, you’ve got to work twice as hard to get half as far† ( DeSante 342). Often when we think of discrimination we don’t think of it under the circumstances of being brought into the workplace. However, with careers and jobs being a fundamental part of life it is important to acknowledge that it remains as a persistent problem, even today. A little over half a century ago President Lyndon B. Johnson passed The Civil Rights Act of 1964. Title VII of The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin. Although TitleShow MoreRelatedRacism : Nelson Mandela, Former President Of South Africa1523 Words   |  7 Pageslove comes more naturally to the human heart than its opposite† (Nelson Mandela Museum). Racism has been at the forefront of debates since the Nineteenth century and has spread throughout the United States, creating outrage, violence, and political reform. Racism has been the main cause behind many major organizations in this country, some even politica l. Some organizations take a firm stance against racism, such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and someRead MoreRacism And The World s Greatest Issues Today Essay1270 Words   |  6 PagesRacism continues to be one of the world’s greatest issues today. Many individuals are not aware of how much racism still exists in our schools, workplaces, and anywhere else where social lives are prevailing. It is obvious that racism is unacceptable as it was in the past but it sure has not disappeared. Racism very much exists everywhere and it is about time that individuals start thinking about solutions to this problem. Many people assume that it depends on if an individual was brought into theRead MoreDiscrimination Effects from the 1930s1530 Words   |  7 Pagesof an era of Discrimination Discrimination is a disease. This is a greatly popular quote straight from the mouth of Robert Staunbach. Many people consider the 1930s to be a terrible time of prejudice, especially to some violent extremes. Between racism, sexism, and social prejudice, discrimination levels were about the highest America has ever seen. This was a difficult time for African Americans in the U.S, and despite the decline of organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan, racism was as strongRead MoreAnalysis Of The Article School s Discipline For Girls Essay1541 Words   |  7 PagesSocietal Racism in the United States In her article, â€Å"School’s Discipline for Girls Differs by Race and Hue (2014),† Tanzina Vega emphasises and addresses the issue of societal racism by sharing with the reader the personal experiences of young African American girls within the school disciplinary system in the United States. Through examining these girls experiences, it becomes apparent that societal racism, or racism that is overwhelmingly and systemically prevalent and entrenched in all aspectsRead MoreRacism : Racism And Racial Discrimination1425 Words   |  6 PagesRacism consists of ideologies and practices that seek to justify, or cause, the unequal distribution of privileges, rights or goods among different racial groups. Modern variants are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These can take the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems that consider different races to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each othe r, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualitiesRead MoreEssay on Racism In America1586 Words   |  7 PagesRacism In America Racism (n): the prejudice that members of one race are intrinsically superior to members of other race (Wordnet search, 1), a controversial topic in today’s society, a subject that many people try to sweep under the rug, but yet a detrimental problem that has been present in America since the colonial era. Will this dilemma come to a halt? Can all Americans see each other as equals despite their skin color and nationality; and what role has it played in past generations versusRead MoreAmerica Is Considered For Its Freedom1616 Words   |  7 Pagesgovernment or from other people. Migrants from other countries come to the United States to have a chance at freedom. To raise a family away from war torn cities or harsh governments. They come to America in hopes of getting the chance to succeed in life and express themselves without anybody critiquing them. However, America is not as free as it’s made out to be. American history has been filled with racism and discrimin ation against people’s race, religion, and social groups. From slavery and theRead MoreThe Issue Of Racial Discrimination985 Words   |  4 PagesThe United States criminal justice institution has always been known by the public to be corrupted by racism. The public hears time and time again of stories involving minorities being racially discriminated within the judicial system. There is a rainbow of issues that the United States judicial system has when it comes to racial discrimination. However, the most costly and the most disheartening of these issues is racial discrimination in the death sentencing process. The death penalty is a hotRead MoreRacism : The United States Of America885 Words   |  4 PagesRacism in The United States of America Racism has been part of American History since the beginning of the Countries origin. This issue includes the mistreatment of The Native Americans that were forced out of their lands and placed on reservations to black slaves being brought here from Africa. Throughout the history of this great nation people of the U.S. have moved away from these racist beliefs, yet, it is still a relevant issue in today’s society. Today slavery is no longer an institution, andRead MoreRace And Racial Inequality During The Civil Rights Of Everyone Has Improved Over The Last Few Decades1719 Words   |  7 Pages â€Å"Racism[ˈrÄ Ã‹Å'sizÉ™m]prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against someone of a different race based on the belief that one s own race is superior†. Race and racial inequality have strongly shaped American history from its beginning up until now . Americans like to think of the founding of the American colonies and, later, the United States, as drive n by liberty and freedom .However, from the start America was founded on inequality which involved the absolute oppression for not only